Musician Rajyeshwar Mitra Mahasaya has rendered an exceptional service in his field. He possessed deep knowledge of Sanskrit as well as Persian. I myself studied Sanskrit up to my B.A. at Lucknow University. I did not study Persian formally, but out of curiosity I turned to the English translations of the Baburnama and Akbarnama.
Rajyeshwar Mitra, in his work “Musical Thought in Mughal India”, has translated for our benefit the music-related sections of three invaluable texts:
Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari,
Fakirullah’s Raga Darpan, and
Mirza Khan’s Tuhfat-ul-Hind.
It is on the basis of these sources that I shall present certain information in this chapter. (Nawab Wajid Ali Shah’s “Dulhan” is also included in this compilation.)
Babur did not rule for long, and Humayun, constantly entangled in battles and forced into exile, had little opportunity to familiarise himself with the culture of Hindustan. It is well known that although Jalaluddin Akbar was himself technically “uneducated”, he was an ardent admirer of every branch of Indian culture. Music, in particular, enjoyed his highest patronage. Yet, despite this royal affection, the intellectual expansion of music theory during Akbar’s time did not progress significantly.
During Aurangzeb’s reign, Fakirullah, in his Raga Darpan, mentions a text from Akbar’s era, though he himself expresses doubt regarding its authenticity. Badauni cites the names of two scholars who wrote such treatises: one Miya Kasim Kahi; the second, Chughtai Amir Khanjur Beg, who compiled extensive information on both Persian and Indian music. However, no trace of this latter work has been found.
Abul Fazl, writing in Akbar’s time, declared that no musician of the past thousand years could compare with Tansen, and although most contemporary artists acknowledged his supremacy, Fakirullah — compiler of Raga Darpan — regarded Tansen merely as a great singer. Fakirullah, being an ally of Aurangzeb, asserted that Raja Man Singh Tomar, Nayak Bakshu, and others were superior to Tansen both in scholarship and musical ability. Fakirullah even went so far as to call Tansen an “Atai”.
The term Atai refers to those who imitate an Ustad but cannot themselves be called true masters. In my childhood, English-educated gentlemen like us, who attempted to sing classical music, were often dismissed as Atai by the Ustads — even Pandit Ravi Shankar was not spared such criticism. Let us leave aside such rigid orthodoxy; the truth is that Tansen enjoyed such unrivalled favour with the Emperor, and his renown was so great, that his disciples tried to establish the idea that Dhrupad alone was the court’s true classical genre, and that Tansen was the greatest Dhrupad exponent of all time.
This gave rise to distortions, which gradually became harmful. Fakirullah mentions this deterioration and was critical of Akbar’s patronage in this regard. Yet, even he acknowledges that creating three ragas — such as Kanara, Miyan ki Todi, and others attributed to Tansen — stands as undeniable evidence of his brilliance. Many have created ragas, but where do we find another musician who devised several ragas of such enduring authority?
The form known today as Khyal (or Khyal/Khyal) is described in Raga Darpan, written during Akbar’s great-grandson’s era. According to the treatise, Khyal is sung in two sections, in the Desi manner. It became well-known during Akbar’s reign. When Agra (Akbarabad) became the capital, musicians and Ustads of unparalleled calibre gathered there.
Most of these musicians were originally from Gwalior. Thus, although today’s Khyal has evolved considerably from its earliest form, the evidence suggests that both Dhrupad and Khyal possessed a far older lineage in Gwalior than in Agra.
Fakirullah also provides a list of artists who flourished during Akbar’s reign, describing their respective qualities. (Raga Darpan, p. 66). It is uncertain, however, whether any of them sang Khyal in its early form.
Table of Contents
Prominent Musicians of the Mughal Court
Drawing upon the writings of Fakirullah and other scholars, the following is a list of eminent musicians associated with Emperor Akbar’s court and immediate musical circle. Their contributions shaped the foundation of North Indian classical music, particularly the evolution of Dhrupad and early Khayal traditions.
1. Miyan Tansen
Miyan Tansen was born in 1516 CE in Behat village, near Gwalior.
According to nearly all musicologists, he is regarded as the greatest musician ever produced in North India. One of the celebrated Navaratnas (Nine Jewels) of Emperor Akbar’s court, he held the title Sangeet Samrat – the Emperor of Music.
For a detailed account, see: Miyan Tansen (Mohammad Ata Ali Khan).
2. Haji Sujan Khan
Haji Sujan Khan is considered the founder and earliest exponent of the Nauhar Bani and the Agra Gharana.
Evidence from contemporary singers of the Agra tradition supports the view that the lineage began with him.
Textual sources describe him as a Rajput by birth who later embraced Islam and became a court musician under Emperor Akbar.
Folk accounts attribute to him the legendary feat of singing Raga Deepak so powerfully that it is said to have lit lamps. In admiration, Akbar reportedly honoured him with the title “Deepak Jyot”.
Sujan Khan was also a composer. Many Dhrupad compositions bearing the mudra (pen name) “Sujan” survive today and continue to be performed. Some scholars believe that Sujan Khan and Tansen were contemporaries.
3. Surgiyan Khan
Little documented but remembered among Akbar’s court musicians.
4. Chand Khan and Surat Khan Fatehpuri (Brothers)
A pair of highly regarded musicians who served at Fatehpur Sikri and were associated with the royal ensemble.
5. Chand and Rashid Miyan – Disciples of Tansen
Two prominent students of Miyan Tansen, widely respected for their command over Dhrupad.
6. Tantarang and Bilas Khan — Sons of Tansen
Both sons inherited Tansen’s musical legacy.
Bilas Khan is traditionally credited with composing Raga Bilaskhani Todi, reportedly created in grief after Tansen’s death.
7. Ramdas Muthiya
A respected musician of the Mughal era, though historical records about him are sparse.
8. Daud Khan Dhari
A notable Dhari musician known for his expertise in Dhrupad.
9. Madan Rai Dhari
Another prominent artist belonging to the Dhari tradition.
10. Mulla Asthak Dhari
A scholar-musician who reportedly acquired his musical expertise through rigorous independent study, hence the title Mulla.
11. Khizir Khan and His Brother Nabat Khan
Two distinguished musicians whose lineage is found in Mughal musical documents.
12. Husain Khan Patanni (of Afghan Origin)
An Afghan-born musician who earned significant repute within the Mughal musical hierarchy.
13. Baaz Bahadur — Ruler of Malwa
The legendary last independent Sultan of Malwa, remembered not only as a patron of music but also as a skilled musician and performer himself.
14. Nayak Charaj (Composer of Chharjuki Malhar)
Credited with the creation of Chharjuki Malhar, a variant within the Malhar family of ragas.
15. Nayak Bhagwan
Another eminent classical musician of Akbar’s era.
16. Suratsen — The Beloved Son
Referred to as “Priya Putra”, meaning the beloved son, remembered as a musician of note.
17. Lala and Devi — Brahmin Musicians, Sons of Akeel
Two Brahmin brothers whose names appear among the recognised musicians of the court.
18. Sun Bacchi
Another musician acknowledged in Fakirullah’s list.
Scholars, Pedagogy, and the Musical Culture of the Mughal Court
The musicians listed earlier held formal positions at court, yet they were not as erudite or as intellectually rigorous as Nayak Bhanu, Nayak Pandavi, or Nayak Bashu. The title Nayak was reserved for those who were not merely singers but also scholars of music. They sang seated on elevated seats (kursi) and also taught students formally. The been (rudra veena) and mridang players accompanied them from behind or from the floor.
They explained the theoretical concepts found in works such as the Man Kutuhal and the treatises of Shaid Dev—demonstrating that teaching combined both practical performance training and an equal emphasis on theory and grammar (lakshana).
Those who were scholars but not capable singers were called Pandit, not Nayak.
Qualities Expected of a Musician (as described in Rag Darpan)
In the eighth chapter of Rag Darpan, Fakirullah outlines the essential virtues of a true musician:
- Their voice must be captivating and exhibit refined taste during performance.
- They should understand graha, nyasa, raganga, bhashanga, kriya anga, and alap anga.
- Their application of alap and gamak must be exemplary.
- Their voice should move with ease across all three octaves.
- They must possess mastery over ornamentation, a strong sense of tala, and avoid any form of irregular, lawless singing.
- Their voice must have strength and authority.
- They must know the difference between shuddha and chhaya-lag ragas.
- Through rigorous practice, their voice should travel comfortably across different pitches or frets.
- They must have an excellent memory and the ability to accurately identify ragas.
- Above all, they must embody the qualities of beauty, grace, and emotional richness (ranjakatva) in music.
[ibid., p. 64]
The author remarks sardonically that even in today’s world, it is doubtful whether any modern Indian classical vocalist would pass such an examination.
Classification of Musicians in the Mughal Era
Those who lacked both adequate skill and scholarly depth were divided into two classes:
- Madhyama – mediocre
- Adhama – inferior
Musicians who taught for a living were known as Shikshakar. The Ankar or Aankar class consisted of singers who could perform adequately but were not capable teachers.
Those who could swiftly move listeners emotionally were called Rasika. Those who entertained and pleased audiences were known as Ranjaka. Musicians who adhered strictly to the rules of ragas and maintained their emotional sentiment were called Bhavaka.
Notably, although the text is written in Persian, the musical terminology is exclusively Sanskrit, showing a deep interweaving of Indo-Persian scholarship. Despite Fakirullah’s scepticism regarding Akbar’s musical circle, Miyan Tansen still occupies the highest position in his list.
The Revival of Khayal Under Shah Jahan
During the reign of Shah Jahan, Khayal—long overshadowed by Dhrupad—began to experience a revival.
A particularly important figure is Sheikh Bahauddin of Barnawa, mentioned prominently in Rag Darpan. He spent 25 years travelling, associating with Fakirs, and learning musical traditions across India. In the south he studied local musical practices as well as instrumental techniques. Upon returning at the age of 50, he had no equal in knowledge or skill.
Fakirullah writes that he composed both Dhrupad and Khayal and performed all forms with equal mastery. The chutkala songs of Jaunpur—renowned for their difficulty—were performed by him with remarkable finesse. Sheikh Nasiruddin too excelled in Dhrupad, Khayal, Chutkala, and Tarana, matching even Sultan Husain Sharki in musical prowess.
The Kalawants and Their Lineages
Lal Khan Kalawant, primarily a Dhrupad singer, studied under Bilas Khan (son of Tansen). He later married Bilas Khan’s daughter and earned the title Gun-Samudra Khan (Ocean of Virtue). Other disciples of Bilas Khan included Misir Dhari and Bhakt Khan of Gujarat.
Gun Khan Kalawant was brought to Bihar-Bengal by Prince Shuja at his request. He was equally skilled in marg and desi traditions. Rajarama and his grandson, ruling Khadagpur in Bihar, were said to possess musical wisdom equal to Amir Khusrau or Sultan Shakir. Their Khayal and Tarana compositions were exquisite, and their voices extremely sweet—Fakirullah considered them without parallel.
The most renowned musician of this lineage was Khushhal Khan, son of Lal Khan. During Aurangzeb’s reign, none surpassed him, and he enjoyed long-lasting royal patronage. Apart from these, Rag Darpan lists twenty or so other celebrated vocalists, veena players, mridang players, and shahnai (soorna) musicians.
Music Under Aurangzeb: Decline, Patronage, and Contradictions
In the early part of Aurangzeb’s reign, the Kalawants prospered. Fakirullah composed Rag Darpan during Aurangzeb’s rule, though he himself belonged to Shah Jahan’s era.
He had served under Shah Jahan, yet later joined Aurangzeb’s forces. When Raja Jaswant Singh was sent to block Aurangzeb’s advance in Malwa, Fakirullah defected with a small group and was rewarded with a mansab of 1,500 and the title Saif Khan.
Fakirullah and Ikram Khan were also credited with defeating Shuja and overseeing the execution of Dara Shikoh.
Aurangzeb appointed him Subadar (Governor) of Kashmir, Bihar, and Allahabad. Rag Darpan was completed in 1666.
By 1668, Aurangzeb’s hostility towards music became evident. He issued orders forbidding musicians such as Khushhal Khan, Vishram Khan, and Rasbin from performing at court—though they were still allowed to appear formally and were not expelled.
On 21 October 1668, Khushhal Khan and several others were awarded 3,000 rupees and forty robes of honour. Vishram Khan died in 1671, after which his son Bhupat Khan and Khushhal Khan were given customary gifts.
European travellers like Manucci and Bernier recorded numerous anecdotes of princely generosity to musicians during the Mughal period.
Abraham Eraly writes in The Great Mughals of a king of Bhattah who once gifted Tansen one crore rupees after hearing him sing.
Jahangir weighed a flautist, Mohammad Nayi, against gold coins—6,300 rupees—and even gifted him an elephant, possibly to carry the bags of money.
Jagannath, a distinguished Dhrupad and Khayal vocalist, received his weight in gold mohurs from Shah Jahan. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan famously gifted the singer Ramdas one lakh rupees.
A dethroned Sultan of Golconda, imprisoned in Daulatabad, once lamented after hearing a singer:
“If only I still had my kingdom, I would have rewarded this man with a lakh of rupees.”
Aurangzeb, hearing this, immediately ordered that the Sultan be given one lakh rupees.
Such acts of extravagant generosity, however, were rare for a ruler who publicly disapproved of music.
Fakirullah dedicated his treatise to Aurangzeb and requested that the Emperor publicly endorse the work. Whether Aurangzeb ever acted on this suggestion remains unknown.
Aurangzeb’s Ban on Music and the Migration of Musicians
By the final years of Aurangzeb’s rule, music in the Mughal court had deteriorated significantly. Although he justified his ban using Qur’anic injunctions, the motives likely included personal distaste for performance practices instilled during his upbringing, as well as political and religious considerations.
An Arabic scholar, Professor T. K. Roychowdhury, once argued that the Qur’an’s vocabulary often carries multiple meanings, and that those not deeply learned in Arabic frequently misinterpret or over-literalise certain verses.
He further noted that certain Hadith describe situations in which music is permissible—for example, when a slave girl sings or plays an instrument to comfort a weary warrior returning from battle.
Whatever the theological debates, one popular legend recounts that during Aurangzeb’s reign, the musicians (Kalawants and Rasikas) held a symbolic funeral procession for music.
When told of this, the Emperor reportedly remarked:
“Tell them to make the grave deep enough so that it does not rise again.”
Long before Muhammad Shah Rangila’s reign (1719–1748), musicians had already begun leaving Delhi for safer havens in surrounding regions:
Onweta (near Meerut), Kirana (near Saharanpur), Sikandra (near Agra), Jaipur, and Gwalior.
These migrations later gave rise to the great gharanas of Hindustani classical music.